CltuJ 

JANUARY,  !876. 


BULLETIN 


UNIVERSITY  of  CALIFORNIA 

~ 

LECTURE  ON  THE  PHYLLOXERA*  OR  GRAPE  VINE  LOUSE, 

Delivered  before  the  State  Vinicultural  Association, 

At  San  Francisco,  November  2Sd,  187,>. 

BY  EUGENE  W.  HILGAED, 

Professor  of  Agriculture  in  the  University  of  California. 


The  name  Phylloxera,  meaning  leaf -wither er , was  originally 
given  to  a kind  of  plant  louse  which  infests  the  European  oak. 
We  are  now  acquainted  with  sixteen  species,  of  which  only  one, 
the  Ph.  vastatrix,  of  Planchon,  affects  the  interests  of  man.  The 
study  of  the  others,  however,  has  materially  assisted  in  ascer- 
taining the  habits  and  life  history  of  that  one  important  species, 
which  forms  the  subject  of  the  present  lecture. 

It  was  first  observed  in  America  in  1856,  by  Asa  Fitch,  of 
New  York,  and  by  him  named  Pemphigus  vitifolice.  Other 
names  were  subsequently  applied  by  other  observers  to  its  va- 
rious forms,  until,  about  the  year  1870,  their  identity  was  dem- 
onstrated by  Lichtenstein,  Riley  and  others. 


* Pronounced  as  if  spelled  Fillo-xee-ra ; emphasis  on  xee. 

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BULLETIN  OF  THE 


All  the  earlier  names  and  descriptions  refer  to  the  leaf-inhab- 
iting and  winged  form  of  the  insect. 

The  Root  Rot  or  cc  Pourridie”  of  the  vines,  first  mentioned 
as  existing  in  France  about  the  years  1865-6,  was  shown  to  be 
due  to  wingless  lice  in  1868,  by  Planchon.  But  the  identity  of 
these  root  lice  with  those  inhabiting  the  leaf-galls  of  certain 
native  American  vines,  was  for  some  time  not  even  suspected. 
After  attention  had  been  called  to  their  close  resemblance,  and 
to  the  fact  that  the  Leaf  Gall  Louse  descended  to  the  root  in 
winter,  attempts  were  made,  both  in  this  country  and  in  Eu- 
rope, to  transplant  root  lice  to  the  leaves;  many  of  which  were 
unsuccessful,  in  consequence  of  the  failure  of  observers  to  se- 
lect suitable  varieties  of  vines.  Finally,  in  1870  to  71,  Riley 
conclusively  proved  the  identity  of  the  two  types,  by  effecting 
the  change  of  habit  either  way,  on  vines  properly  selected.  He 
also  showed  that  the  all  but  universal  failure  of  the  European 
vines,  as  well  as  that  of  certain  delicate  varieties  in  the  Missis- 
sippi valley,  observed  long  since,  was  due  to  the  attacks  of  the 
Root  Louse. 

When,  not  many  weeks  ago,  I was  examining  the  diseased 
vines  in  the  Sonoma  valley,  I was  forcibly  struck  with  the  fact 
that  I had  handled  vines  precisely  so  circumstanced,  thirty 
years  ago,  when  my  father,  among  the  first,  attempted  the  cul- 
ture of  Rhenish  grapes  in  southern  Illinois. 

From  1870  up  to  this  time,  the  Phylloxera  has  spread  in 
France  with  frightful  rapidity,  destroying*  wholly  or  partially 
thousands  upon  thousands  of  acres  in  the  vine-growing  dis- 
tricts. Four  years  ago  the  French  Academy  appointed  a stand- 
ing Phylloxera  committee,  whose  reports  and  discussions  often 
occupy  a large  portion  of  the  weekly  session.  A prize  of,  first, 
thirty  thousand,  then  sixty  thousand,  then  three  hundred 
thousand  francs,  has  been  offered  for  the  discovery  of  an  effect- 
ual and  practicable  remedy.  But  although  hundreds  have  been 
brought  forward,  the  prize  has  not  yet  been  awarded.  Mean- 
while the  existence  and  ravages'of  the  insect  have  become  ob- 
vious in  Germany,  Austria  and  Portugal.  Universal  alarm  has 
been  created  in  these  countries,  and  the  literature  of  the  sub- 
ject has  become  exceedingly  voluminous. 

In  1873,  the  French  Government  sent  Planchon,  a prominent 
scientist,  to  observe  the  Phylloxera  in  its  native  haunts  in  the 
United  States;  it  being  now  considered  certain  that  the  insect 
is  at  home  on  native  American  vines,  and  has  been  imported 


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into  other  countries  with  them.  Planchon’s  observations  and 
reports  have  fully  confirmed,  in  all  essential  points,  those  pre- 
viously made  by  Riley  and  other  American  observers.  Riley’s 
observations,  published  chiefly  in  the  reports  made  by  him  as 
State  Entomologist  of  Missouri,  are  by  far  the  most  complete 
and  reliable  made  in  this  country;  and  to  his  publications  I am 
largely  indebted  for  the  material  and  illustrations  of  the  pres- 
ent lecture. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PHYLLOXERA. 

In  most  respects  the  Phylloxera  resembles  the  common  plant 
lice  [Aphis),  the  main  difference  being  that  its  wings  lie  flat, 
and  overlap  on  the  back,  instead  of  being  erected  roof-fashion; 
and  that  the  three-jointed  attennse  have  the  terminal  joint 
much  the  longest.  All  are  quite  small,  the  perfect  winged 
form  of  the  Vine  Louse  being  about  one-twentieth  of  an  inch 
in  length.  Its  peculiar  feature  is  the  great  variety  of  forms 
which  it  is  capable  of  assuming  under  different  circumstances. 
Among  them  we  -distinguish  two  chief  types,  viz : the  leaf-inhab- 
iting one  or  Gall  Louse , and  the  root-inhabiting  or  Root  Louse. 

THE  OALL  LOUSE. 

The  Gall  Louse  habitually  infests  the  leaves  of  certain  native 
grapes  in  the  Eastern  states,  especially  those  of  the  Frost  Grape 
( Vitis  riparia  and  cor  difolia.)  It  covers  the  surface  of  the  leaf 
with  numerous  fleshy  swellings,  of  irregular  shape,  and  often 
partially  of  a reddish  tint.  In  them  we  find  a wingless  louse, 
one  twenty-fifth  of  an  inch  long.  When  the  gall  is  filled  with 
from  two  hundred  to  five  hundred  eggs,  the  mother  louse  dies. 
The  eggs  hatch  in  from  six  to  eight  days  into  active  little  larvae, 
of  oval  form,  which  soon  leave  the  gall,  go  to  the  upper 
surface  of  downy  young  leaves,  and  insert  their  suckers.  The 
latter  consist  of  three  fine  threads,  surrounded  by  a blunt  and 
hairy  sheath.  The  leaves  soon  begin  to  swell  below,  while  a 
reddish  down  surrounds  the  louse  above;  gradually  closing  in. 
On  suitable  vines,  the  gall  forms  in  a few  days,  and  the  grown 
louse  begins  to  deposit  eggs,  fills  the  gall,  and  dies.  The 
young  lice  not  only  attack  the  leaves,  but  also  cover  the  tender 
shoots,  and  even  the  tendrils,  with  swellings. 

It  has  been  calculated,  that  at  the  rate  of  five  hundred  eggs 
in  each  gall,  the  progeny  of  five  or  six  generations  would,  if 

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BULLETIN  OF  THE 


placed  end  to  end,  reach  thirty  times  around  the  earth ; but 
under  ordinary  circumstances  so  few  survive  that  the  damage 
done  is  comparatively  trifling,  and  readily  prevented  by  early 
attention. 

Towards  the  end  of  September  the  galls  are  mostly  empty, 
the  lice  having  gone  to  the  roots  to  hibernate. 


THE  BOOT  LOUSE. 

The  life  history  of  the  root-inhabiting  type  of  Phylloxera  is 
much  more  complex  than  that  of  the  Gall  Louse.  The  newly 
hatched  larvae  of  either  are  alike.  Those  of  the  Root  Louse 
soon  acquire  tubercles  over  their  surface;  these,  however,  are 
irregular,  only  skin  deep,  and  sometimes  absent.  As  the  de- 
velopment progresses,  two  forms  begin  to  differentiate  them- 
selves. One  is  of  a somewhat  pointed  egg  or  pear  shape,  and 
resembles  the  wingless  Gall  Louse;  the  other  is  of  an  oval 
form. 

The  former  is  the  mother  Root  Louse;  it  remains  on  the  root 
through  life,  sucking  its  juices,  locating  itself  an$i  its  colonies 
by  preference  in  crevices,  creases,  etc.  At  maturity,  without 
sexual  impregnation , each  lays  upwards  of  two  hundred  and 
flfty  eggs,  which  on  hatching  again  rapidly  go  through  the 
same  round  of  life. 

THE  . WINGED  FOKM. 

The  oval  form  of  the  Root  Louse  larva  is  destined  to  become 
winged.  From  the  time  it  has  achieved  one-third  of  its  growth, 
the  w7ing  pads,  or  rudimentary  wings,  are  visible.  The  indi- 
viduals are  more  active  than  those  of  the  wingless  form,  and 
are  often  seen  crawling  about ; Anally,  in  July  and  August 
they  shed  their  last  skin,  and  take  wing.  The  winged  form  has 
neither  tubercles  nor  granules  on  its  back.  All  are  females;  a 
supposed  male  form,  with  shorter  abdomen,  proves  to  be  mere- 
ly a barren  female.  The  perfect  ones  deposit  from  two  to  eight 
eggs  where  they  alight,  and  then  perish. 

The  eggs  are  of  two  kinds:  the  larger,  about  two  hundredths 
of  an  inch  in  length,  are  of  the  female  sex;  the  others,  about 
two-fifths  smaller,  hatch  into  males;  the  time  required  being 
about  a fortnight. 

The  sexual  individuals  thus  produced  are  again  wingless; 
more  than  that,  they  are  destitute  of  sucker,  mouth,  or  aliment- 

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ary  canal,  being  evidently  destined  exclusively  for  the  repro- 
duction of  their  species.  They  are  quite  active  and  couple 
freely. 

These  sexual  females  lay  but  one  single  egg  apiece.  This 
solitary  egg,  which  is  destined  to  hibernate,  and  hatch  in 
spring,  produces  again  the  ordinary  mother  Boot  Louse, 
which  lays  several  hundred  eggs,  and  is  capable  of  repeating 
itself  without  sexual  reproduction,  for  live  or  six  generations. 

So  far  it  would  seem  as  though  the  reproduction  of  the  wing- 
ed form  at  intervals  were  necessary  for  the  renewal  of  the  vigor 
of  the  species  ; and  that,  if  its  appearance  could  be  prevented, 
or  itself  or  its  brood  be  destroyed,  the  Phylloxera  might  be  al- 
most exterminated. 

Unfortunately,  other  observations  have  shown  that  nature  has 
provided  against  the  possibility  of  thus  getting  rid  of  the  pest. 
Under  ^circumstances  not  fully  understood,  the  ordinary  form 
of  mother  louse  also  at  times  performs  the'  office  of  the  sexual 
females,  and  lays  the  large  solitary  egg  which  is  necessary  for 
the  rejuvenation  of  the  indispensable  insect. 

Such  multiplicity  of  forms,  of  provisions  for  the  perpetuity 
of  the  species,  combined  with  such  elasticity  of  habit,  is  not 
thus  far  known  to  exist  in  any  other  insect ; albeit  similar 
transformations  have  been  observed  in  the  species  that  inhabits 
the  oak. 

IDlfNTITY  OF  THE  GALL  AND  ROOT  LOUSE. 

The  identity,  and  convertibility  into  each  other,  of  the  two 
principal  forms  of  Phylloxera,  were  long  doubted.  This  was 
especially  the  case  in  Europe,  where  the  conditions  of  the 
change  of  habit  did  not  then  exist.  Many  attempts  to  trans- 
plant the  Boot  Louse  to  the  leaves  failed,  which  is  not  surpris- 
ing, when  we  consider  that,  as  Biley  -showed,  the  insect  does 
not  form  galls  readily  even  on  the  Clinton  vine,  after  having 
lived  on  the  roots  of  other  varieties  for  several  generations. 
The  leaves  of  the  Clinton,  and  of  its  wild  ancestor,  the  Frost 
Grape , seems  to  be  best  of  all  adapted  to  the  taste  of  the  Gall 
Louse.  In  the  South  I have  seen  whole  arbors  of  this  grape 
( Vitis  riparia)  thickly  covered  with  galls,  so  as  to  prevent  its 
bearing  altogether.  Its  roots,  however,  are  scarcely  at  all  in- 
fested during  the  growing  season,  but  only  serve  as  a retreat 
for  hibernation. 

On  grape  varieties  whose  leaves  are  not  to  its  taste,  the  Phyl- 

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BULLETIN  OF  THE 


loxera  either  forms  ho  galls  at  all,  or  abandons  them  after  mak- 
ing a trial,  leaving  “ abortive"  galls.  In  some  cases  it  has 
been  found  living  under  the  bark,  above  ground.  Koehler  (at 
Kloster-Neuburg),  and  Balbiani,  succeeded  in  making  the  Root 
Louse  live  on  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves,  in  the  third  gen- 
eration. The  fact  that  the  habits  and  mode  of  development  of 
the  insect  depends  very  largely  upon  the  nature  of  the  vine,  so 
that  it  will  refuse  to  live  on  the  leaves  of  some  varieties,  and 
decline  the  roots  of  others,  is  the  key  to  the  whole  mystery  of 
its  changes  of  habit,  whose  importance  was  first  fully  shown  by 
Riley.  The  failure  to  take  this  important  consideration  into 
account,  explains  the  wide  divergence  in  the  results  and  con- 
clusions of  different  observers  and  experimenters.  More  than 
this,  if  furnishes  the  most  important  cue  to  the  prevention  of 
the  ravages  of  the  insect  in  the  vineyards  of  the  future. 

On  the  European  vine  ( F.  vinifera — which  includes  the  Mis- 
sion grape  of  California),  leaf-galls  have  scarcely  been  known 
to  be  formed ; the  attacks  of  the  insect  are  altogether  directed 
against  the  roots.  The  exact  reverse  is  true  of  the  native  Frost 
Grape  of  the  Eastern  States,  from  which  the  Clinton  and  relat- 
ed varieties  are  derived.  Of  the  other  American  varieties  those 
descended  from  the  Fox  Grape  of  the  Atlantic  States — such  as 
the  Catawba  and  Isabella — are  most  liable  to  the  attacks  of  the 
Root  Louse;  while  those  derived  from  the  Summer  Grape  (F. 
JEstivalis),  such  as  Concord,  as  well  as  the  hybrids,  differ  great- 
ly in  these  respects,  each  requiring  special  experiment  in  dif- 
ferent localities  and  climates,  to  determine  their  nature  and 
powers  of  resistance. 

The  Gall  Louse  is  found  occasionally  on  most  of  the  grape 
varieties  cultivated  in  the  Eastern  States.  When  placed  on 
uncongenial  foliage  it  descends  to  the  roots.  It  was  from 
the  progeny  of  such  lice  that  Riley  obtained  galls  on  the  Clin- 
ton vine,  which,  with  the  Taylor,  is  most  liable  to  its  attacks. 
As,  however,  it  refuses  to  live  on  the  leaves  of  the  European 
vine,  it  is  scarcely  known  in  France,  save  on  imported  Ameri- 
can varieties. 

THE  SPREAD  OF  THE  PHYLLOXERA  IN  EUROPE. 

Since  the  Gall  Louse  never  acquires  wings,  it  can  spread  but 
slowly,  by  crawling.  The  same  is  true  of  the  Root  Louse,  so 
long  as  it  does  not  assume  the  winged  form.  It  then  migrates 
through  crevices  in  the  soil,  or  along  the  roots;  or  even  over 

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the  surface  of  the  ground,  provided  that  the  latter  be  not  too 
sandy.  Being  unable  to  travel  over  or  through  sand,  its  de- 
velopment and  progress  is  so  checked  in  sandy  regions,  as  to 
render  it  almost  powerless  for  harm.  This  circumstance  ex- 
plains the  fact,  that  such  regions  have  enjoyed  almost  complete 
immunity  when  adjoining  ones  were  overrun  with  the  plague. 
It  is  doubtless  from  this  cause  that  the  European  grape  has 
been  successfully  cultivated  in  the  coast  region  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  while  it  has  totally  failed  on  the  more  generally  clayey 
soils  of  the  Western  States. 

But  the  matter  assumes  quite  a different  aspect  when  the 
winged  form  makes  its  appearance.  It  is  not  known  what  per- 
centage of  the  Boot  Louse  progeny  assumes  this  form  under 
ordinary  conditions;  but  it  is  certain  that  at  times  the  winged 
insect  appears  in  countless  numbers,  in  July  and  August.  It 
does  not  seem  to  possess  great  powers  of  flight;  but  it  is  so 
light  and  the  wings  so  large  in  proportion  to  its  weight,  that 
the  lightest  breeze  carries  them  along  with  ease.  As  to  the 
objective  point  of  their  voyage  they  do  not  seem  to  exert  much 
selection;  and  the  question  as  to  the  particular  locality  where 
the  eggs  are  ordinarily  intended  to  be  deposited,  has  been 
much  discussed.  It  is  certain  that  after  alighting,  they  seek  to 
lay  their  eggs  Jin  some  furzy  place,  such  as  buds  or  woolly 
leaves,  or  their  axils,  etc. ; since  the  eggs  appear  to  be  deposit- 
ed indifferently  in  any  such  spot,  whether  on  a vine  or  any  other 
plant  or  tree.  It  is  thus  obvious  why  the  spread  of  the  insect  has 
been  so  much  more  rapid  in  France,  where  vineyards  extend 
uninterruptedly  over  extensive  tracts,  than  in  America,  where 
they  are  mostly  separated  by  intervening  screens  of  woodland, 
on  which  large  numbers  must  alight  in  their  random  flight  and 
of  course  perish  for  want  of  suitable  food.  This  circumstance 
conveys  an  important  hint  in  regard  to  the  prevention  of  the 
spread  of  the  insect.  But  it  is  also  obvious  from  the  facts  just 
quoted,  that  the  eggs  may  be  conveyed  from  one  place  to  the 
other,  both  in  cuttings  and  in  the  material  used  for  packing, 
as  well  as  in  numerous  other  ways.  It  is  true  that  under  or- 
dinary circumstances  the  eggs  hatch  within  a-  fortnight;  but 
should  cold  weather  supervene,  they  may  remain  dormant,  as 
do  the  eggs  deposited  on  the  roots  by  the  last  generation  of 
mother  lice,  and  which,  together  with  larva,  constitute  the  hi- 
bernating reserve.  In  such  a case,  of  course,  the  insect  would 
be  ready  to  revive  and  flourish  wherever  the  cutting  should 

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happen  to  be  planted;  and  it  is  doubtless  in  this  manner  that 
it  h^s  found  its  way  into  many  a vineyard,  and  even  across  the 
sea. 

The  larvae  wintering  on  the  roots  are  of  a dingy  color,  and 
not  easily  seen;  they  are  attached  to  the  roots  by  strong  suc- 
cers.  Early  in  spring  they  revive,  the  eggs  hatch,  and  the  un- 
interrupted round  of  generation  is  resumed. 

INJURY  DONE  TO  VINES. 

The  injury  ordinarily  done  by  the  Gall  Louse  is  compara- 
tively insignificant,  or  easily  rendered  so  by  a little  early  atten- 
tion— clipping  off  and  destroying  the  infested  leaves.  It  is 
only  when  neglected  until  it  has  developed  for  several  genera- 
tions, that  it  passes  beyond  control,  and  materially  injures  the 
cro}3  on  such  varieties  as  are  favorable  to  its  development. 

It  is  quite  otherwise  with  the  Koot  Louse,  whose  presence  is 
usually  unsuspected  until  it  has  seriously  injured  one  crop  at 
least,  and  which  in  any  case  it  is  most  difficult  to  reach. 

The  first  effect  produced  by  the  attack  of  the  louse  is  a swell- 
ing of  the  tender  rootlets,  which  it  prefers  to  the  older  and 
harder  portions.  In  the  center  of  these  rounded,  semi-trans- 
parent swellings,  the  puncture  may  be  seen  as  a minute  black 
dot,  from  wdiich  the  rot  commences  after  the  insect  deserts  it 
for  a new  position.  It  is  thought  that  this  prompt  decay  is  in- 
duced by  an  excrement  that  the  animal  injects  into  the  wound, 
perhaps  to  promote  the  flow  of  sap. 

As  the  invading  army  moves  on,  root  after  root  is  left  behind 
to  decay.  During  the  first  year  the  vine  usually  shows  but 
little  appearance  of  disease,  save  that  the  fruit  is  slow  to  ripen, 
or  matures  but  inrperfectly.  The  lice  being  chiefly  on  the  out- 
tying  rootlets,  simply  arrest  the  normal  increase,  without  harm- 
ing the  vitality  of  the  vine. 

During  the  second  year  the  enemy  rapidly  approaches  the 
center,  destroying  all  the  finer  rootlets.  The  vine  appears 
sickly,  with  stunted,  yellowish  leaves,  and  fails  to  form  fruit. 

Some  of  the  weaker  vines  succumb,  so  as  to  fail  to  put  out 
leaves  the  third  year.  The  stronger  ones  hold  out  through 
the  season  by  the  aid  of  two  or  three  remaining  roots,  from 
the  fact  that  the  Eoot  Louse,  being  somewhat  dainty  in  its 
feeding,  deserts  a dying  vine  before  it  is  completely  exhaust- 
ed, for  cc  fresh  fields  and  pastures  new.”  This  fact,  wdiose 

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significance  lias  been  confirmed  by  direct  experiment  in  France, 
shows  that  a weak  or  diseased  condition  of  the  vine  is  not,  as 
has  been  supposed,  a determining  cause  of  the  attack ; since 
the  Louse  prefers  vigorous  vines  whenever  it  has  the  choice. 
Of  course,  however,  a weak  vine  ordinarily  succumbs  sooner 
than  a strong  one;  and  hence  in  the  case  of  vines  not  constitu- 
tionally very  well  adapted  to  the  nature  of  the  Boot  Louse,  the 
mere  strengthening  of  its  vitality  by  means  of  proper  manures 
is  sometimes  sufficient  to  keep  them  in  profitable  .bearing. 

The  fundamental  importance  of  a judicious  selection  of  vines 
with  regard  to  their  resistance  to  the  Phylloxera > is  thus  obvious. 

COMBATING  THE  PHYLLOXERA. 1.  SUBMERSION. 

I have  already  stated  that  the  prize  of  the  French  Govern- 
ment for  “an  efficacious  and  practicable  remedy5’  for  the  rava- 
ges of  the  Phylloxera  has  not  yet  been  awarded.  Several  of 
the  remedies  suggested  fulfil  one  of  these  two  indispensable 
conditions;  and  there  is  one  which  for  a not  inconsiderable 
class  of  localities  fulfils  both.  This  remedy  is  submersion  of  the 
infested  vines  for  a sufficient  length  of  time;  i.  e.,  for  not  less  than 
thirty  days  in  autumn,  or  even  forty  in  winter. — Wherever  this 
can  be  done  at  a reasonable  cost,  the  Phylloxera  may  be  defied. 

The  remedy,  of  course,  is  available  to  a limited  extent  only. 
Yet  it  has  been  applied  in  France  in  localities  where  steam  ir- 
rigating machines  had  to  be  constructed  for  the  purpose;  be- 
cause of  the  high  commercial  value  of  the  product  of  particular 
vineyards. 

The  great  length  of  submersion  necessary  to  destroy  the  Boot 
Louse  and  its  progeny  (as  ascertained  by  experiment),  renders 
it  indispensable  to  perform  the  operation  while  vegetation  is  in 
abeyance.  It  is  found  that  submersion  during  the  growing  sea- 
son, for  a longer  time  time  than  two  days,  materially  injures  the 
vine,  while  it  does  not  sensibly  interfere  with  the  well-being  of 
the  insect.  At  the  same  time,  whenever  the  latter  has  assumed,  or 
even  approached,  the  hibernating  condition,  it  is  prepared  for 
the  conflict  with  the  elements,  and  much  more  difficult  to  de- 
stroy. The  sooner  after  the  cessation  of  vegetation,  therefore, 
the  operation  of  submersion  can  be  performed,  the  shorter 
will  be  the  time  required  to  exterminate  the  enemy.  In 
pervious  soils,  also,  the  effect  will  be  produced  in  less  time; 
showing  that  the  reason  why  it  takes  so  long  to  kill  the  louse 

gg  201 


10 


BULLETIN  OF  THE 


is  not  so  much  its  ability  to  resist  drowning,  as  the  circum- 
stance that  it  takes  a much  longer  time  than  is  usually  supposed, 
to  fill  the  soil  with  water. 

In  general,  nevertheless,  wet  is  decidedly  injurious  to  the 
Phylloxera.  It  is  less  troublesome  in  wet  soils;  and  wet  sea- 
sons sometimes  check  its  progress  materially.  In  connection 
with  this  point  it  is  important  to  remark,  that  experiment  has 
shown  light  soils  with  a wet  subsoil  not  to  be  as  unfavorable  to 
the  vine  as  has  often  been  supposed.  The  fact  that  several  of 
our  native  vines  are  originally  found  on  such  soils  only , natur- 
ally points  to  this  conclusion,  as  well  as  to  the  grape  varieties 
most  likely  to  succeed  in  low  ground.  That  such  localities  are 
most  readily  submerged  in  case  of  need,  is  an  additional  weigh- 
ty reason  for  locating  vineyards  on  them. 

The  facts  just  mentioned  offer  a ready  explanation  of  the 
very  rapid  progress  made  by  the  Phylloxera  in  California  dur- 
ing a single  season.  Even  our  wettest  winters  cannot  drown 
out  the  hardy  eggs  and  hibernating  larvae.  On  the  other  hand, 
our  long  dry  season,  which  never  fails,  offers  the  insect  a 
chance  for  uninterrupted  development  and  indefinite  multipli- 
cation, such  as  is  scarcely  to  be  found  elsewhere.  Add  to  this 
the  circumstance  that  our  prevalently  heavy  soils  afford  it  ad- 
ditional advantages,  by  the  facility  with  which  it  can  travel  from 
vine  to  vine,  and  from  vineyard  to  vineyard,  through  the  crevices 
of  the  sun-cracked  surface,  and  we  have  a concatenation  of  ad- 
vantages on  the  side  of  the  insect,  which  warns  us  that  unless 
the  most  energetic  measures  be  at  once  taken,  the  fate  of  our 
vineyards  may  reasonably  be  expected  to  be  worse  than  even 
that  of  which  the  French  complain  so  grievously. 

2. — SANDING. 

It  has  been  proposed  to  employ  the  inability  of  the  insect  to 
travel  or  flourish  in  sandy  soils,  as  a means  for  its  destruction. 
But,  plausible  as  this  seems  at  first  sight,  it  lacks  the  essential 
feature  of  practicability  on  any  but  a very  limited  scale.  To 
merely  surround  the  stock  with  sand,  may  close  to  the  insect 
this  very  convenient  outlet;  but  it  will  not  in  the  least  in- 
terfere writh  its  crawling  to  the  surface  through  crevices  else- 
where, or  stop  its  under  ground  communication  through  sun- 
cracks  and  along  the  roots  which  interlock  behveen  the  rows. 
Unless  therefore' the  application  of  sand  is  carried  to  the  ex- 

202 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


11 


tent  of  actually  converting  a heavy  soil  into  a sandy  one,  but 
little  good  can  be  expected  of  it.  That  the  expense  of  this  op- 
eration would  in  the  vast  majority  of  cases  be  an  effectual  bar 
to  its  application,  scarcely  requires  discussion;  still  it  should 
be  kept  in  view,  since  at  times  a mere  diversion  of  the  drainage 
may  be  sufficient  to  effect  a beneficial  change  in  the  course  of 
time.  At  all  events,  the  principle  may  find  an  important  ap- 
plication in  circumscribing  the  spread  of  the  wingless  form,  by 
means  of  ditches  filled  with  sand. 

The  same  objection  that  lies  against  the  efficacy  of  sand  pla- 
ced around  the  stock  of  the  vine  only,  applies  equally  to  other 
impediments  put  in  the  same  place : such  as  plaster  cast  around 
and  smeared  with  tar  or  other  sticky  substances;  or  tarred  saw- 
dust similarly  applied.  The  Koot  Louse,  wingless  or  winged, 
may  choose  this  as  an  easy  route  when  it  is  open  ; but  with  its 
usual  fertility  in  resources,  it  finds  other  outlets  without  much 
trouble,  when  that  one  is  closed. 

3. INSECTICIDES. 

The  fact  that  any  measures  intended  for  the  repression  or  de- 
struction of  the  Phylloxera  must,  in  order  to  be  effective,  ex- 
tend not  only  over  the  entire  surface,  but  also  into  the  depths 
of  the  soil  as  far  as  the  rootlets  of  the  vine  reach,  renders  the 
use  of  insecticides  or  poisons  of  any  kind,  both  difficult  and  ex- 
pensive of  application.  An  immense  number  of  these  have 
been  proposed,  but  a few  only  have  proven  of  any  practical 
value;  partly  because  of  the  expense  attending  their  use,  partly 
from  a tendency  of  most  of  them  to  injure  the  vines  quite  as 
much  as  the  Phylloxera.  I shall  therefore  mention  only  those 
whose  utility  is  proven  beyond  question. 

Coal  tar , and  crude  carbolic  acid , have  from  the  first  been 
prominent  among  the  antidotes  suggested;  and  while  they  have 
failed  to  perform  all  that  might  be  desired,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  they  may  advantageously  be  used  as  repressive 
agents,  to  impede  or  prevent  the  migration  of  the  wingless  in- 
sect over  the  surface  of  the  ground,  as  well  as  the  flight  of  the 
winged  form.  These  objects  are  to  a considerable  extent  ac- 
complished by  sprinkling  the  surface  of  the  ground  thickly 
with  sawdust  or  similar  material,  previously  impregnated  with 
coal  tar;  the  operation  to  be  repeated  from  time  to  time,  as  the 
odor  evaporates;  ft  somewhat  thicker  dressing  of  the  same  ma- 

203 


12 


BULLETIN  OF  THE 


terial  to  be  applied  around  the  stock  of  the  vine. — Application 
of  the  same  to  the  exposed  surface  roots  does  not  seem  to  pay 
for  the  additional  trouble  by  increased  effects;  and  too  direct 
contact  of  the  tar  with  the  rootlets  injures  or  kills  the  latter. 

Soot  may  be  similarly  used;  its  effects  are  advantageous  in 
other  respects,  and  there  is  no  danger  of  injury  to  the  vines. 

Gas  Lime  from  the  purifiers  must  be  used  with  great  caution. 
Its  effects,  due  to  the  combined  action  of  the  tarry  substances 
and  of  sulphur  compounds  (the  latter  giving  off “ sulphuretted  * 
hydrogen”  in  the  soil)  are  so  energetic,  that  the  vine  may  eas- 
ily suffer  as  much  therefrom  as  the  Phylloxera.  It  may  be  ap- 
plied mixed  in  moderate  quantities  with  the  tarred  sawdust,  or 
scattered  over  the  surface  sparingly  by  itself. 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen , generated  in  the  soil  on  the  applica- 
tion of  the  sulphur  compounds  of  some  of  the  metals,  etc.,  is  a 
very  energetic  insecticide,  but  scarcely  less  dangerous  to  vege- 
tation, unless  its  action  is  made  very  brief.  It  is  instant  death  to 
insects,  while  plants  recover,  after  some  time,  from  the  effects 
of  a brief  exposure  to  its  action.  Hence  its  availability  for  the 
destruction  of  the  Phylloxera,  if  used  with  great  caution.  So 
much  permanent  injury,  however,  has  resulted  from  the  im- 
proper and  excessive  use  of  sulphids,  that  their  application  by 
inexperienced  hands  is  mainly  useful  for  the  purpose  of  exter- 
minating the  insect  in  ground  which  is  to  be  replanted  in  vines, 
after  the  removal  or  death  of  infested  stocks.  Where  the  resi- 
dues of  soda  manufactories  are  available,  this  can  be  done  at  a 
cost  not  exceeding  that  of  transportation  and  application. 
Otherwise,  suitable  materials  are  not  ordinarily  obtainable  at  a 
low  cost,  apart  from  the  gas  lime,  already  referred  to. 

The  use  of  phosplioretted  hydrogen , or  of  substances  generat- 
ing it  in  the  ground,  is  liable  to  the  same  objections  as  that  of 
the  sulphur  compound,  is  more  expensive  in  its  materials,  and 
seems  to  offer  no  advantages  not  possessed  by  the  other. 

Another  sulphur  compound  which  at  first  was  thought  to 
possess  all  the  requisite  properties,  is  the  bi-sulphid  of  carbon. 
This  substance,  now  extensively  used  in  the  arts  as  a solvent  of 
sulphur, india  rubber,  etc., is  cheaply  obtained  by  passing  the 
vapor  of  sulphur  over  red-hot  charcoal  contained  in  a retort, 
and  condensing  the  very  volatile  vapor  that  is  so  formed.  The 
resulting  liquid,  colorless  when  pure,  is  so  volatile  that  it  boils 
at  a temperature  but  little  higher  than  that  of  the  hand.  Be- 


204 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


13 


in g,  moreover,  highly  inflammable,  and  very  injurious  when  its 
vapor  is  inhaled,  it  is  obvious  that  it  is  not  a substance  which 
can  be  safety  entrusted  to  inexperienced  hands. 

For  years  past  this  compound  has  been  employed  in  France 
in  the  extermination  of  rats,  especially  in  the  sewers  of  cities. 
Its  vapor,  which  is  far  more  deadly  to  small  animals  than  to 
man,  is  moreover  so  much  heavier  than  air,  that  it  flows  down 
into  rat-holes  just  as  water  would  do,  and  effectually  destroys 
the  inmates.  It  might  doubtless  be  used  with  equal  advantage 
against  the  California  Ground  Squirrel , if  it  could  be  cheaply 
supplied. 

To  insects  it  is  instantly  fatal,  even  in  very  minute  quanti- 
ties; while  to  plants  it  is  very  much  less  injurious  than  sulphur- 
etted hydrogen. 

For  some  time  it  was  thought  that  the  direct  application  of 
this  substance  to  the  vine  roots  might  solve  the  problem  of  the 
extermination  of  the  vine  louse.  It  was  applied  by  pouring 
about  a gill  of  the  liquid  into  holes  punched  deeply  into  the 
ground  around  the  vine,  afterwards  plugging  them  with  earth. 
But  it  was  soon  found  that  this  mode  of  operating  not  only  in- 
jured the  vines  by  the  great  excess  at  the  points  of  application, 
but  was  moreover  only  very  partially  effective ; since  the  poison- 
ous vapor  failed  to  reach  the  outlying  rootlets,  from  which  the 
rest  of  the  vine  was  promptly  re-stocked.  It  was  found  neces- 
sary to  apply  the  antidote  to  the  entire  surface  of  the  field;  and 
this  required  such  large  amounts  of  the  substance  as  to  render 
the  cost  excessive. 

Both  objections  to  the  use  of  the  carbon  bi-sulphid  were, 
however,  finally  overcome  by  first  combining  it  with  an  alka- 
line base — potash  or  soda — so  as  to  render  it  soluble  in  water, 
and  capable  of  being  used  in  very  dilute  solution.  The  nature 
of  these  compounds  is  such  that  when  applied  to  the  soil,  the 
carbon  bi-sulphid  they  contain  is  set  free  very  gradually  (to- 
gether with  some  sulphuretted  hydrogen);  not  enough  at  any 
one  time  and  place  to  injure  the  vine  roots,  yet  sufficient  to  ef- 
fectually kill  the  vine  louse,  eggs,  larvse  and  all.  As  the  di- 
lute solution  can  be  used  abundantly,  it  penetrates  into  the  soil 
to  a correspondingly  greater  depth  than  would  the  bi-sulphid, 
when  applied  directly  in  comparatively  small  quantities.  The 
gravity  of  the  vapor  will,  in  either  case,  carry  the  effect  much 
deeper  than  the  solution  itself  may  penetrate. 

The  strength  of  the  solution  most  suitable  for  practical  pur- 

205 


14 


BULLETIN  OF  THE 


poses  was  found  to  be  one  part  of  the  dry  compound  in  eight 
thousand  of  water.  The  substance  is  furnished  by  the  manu- 
facturers in  the  shape  of  a strong  solution,  containing  equal 
parts  of  water  and  compound,  or  fifty  per  cent,  strong.  This 
can  be  shipped  in  cases  to  any  distance. 

Previous  to  the  application  of  the  liquid,  the  ground  should 
be  very  thoroughly  tilled,  so  as  to  allow  the  antidote  to  pene- 
trate as  rapidly  as  possible.  It  may  be  interesting  to  mention 
in  this  connection,  experiments  made  with  a view  to  to  testing 
the  effect  of  dynamite  explosions  in  loosening  refractory  soils. 
Water  was  standing  on  the  surface  of  a vineyard  plot  to  which 
the  antidote  wTas  to  be  applied : small  dynamite  cartridges  were 
exploded  at  the  depth  of  two  or  three  feet,  the  result  being  that 
the  water  immediately  disappeared  from  the  surface,  and  the 
soil  appeared  as  though  it  had  been  trenched  or  underdrained. 
Where  the  latter  operations  are  as  expensive  as  they  are  in 
California,  this  novel  mode  of  producing  substantially  the  same 
results  may  not  be  unworthy  of  a more  extended  trial. 

As  to  the  expense  of  a thoroughly  effective  application,  it  is 
found  in  France  to  amount  to  about  ten  to  fifteen  dol- 
lars per  acre.  There  are,  of  course,  considerable  differences 
in  the  amount  required  on  different  soils,  according  to  their  de- 
gree of  penetrability,  and  the  depth  to  which  the  roots  of  the 
vines  reach.  The  amount  needed  on  any  .given  soil  may  be  es- 
timated upon  the  basis  that,  according  to  numerous  experi- 
ments, one  pound  of  the  sulpho-carbonate  of  potash,  will  kill 
every  insect  in  from  one  thousand  to  fifteen  hundred  cubic  feet 
of  earth.  On  the  supposition  that  the  effect  of  the  antidote 
must  be  made  to  reach  to  the  depth  of  three  feet,  each  vine  in  a 
vineyard  planted  eight  by  eight  feet,  would  require  the  im- 
pregnation of  two  hundred  cubic  feet  at  the  rate  mentioned,  or 
one  pound  of  the  sulpho-carbonate  to  every  five  to  seven  vines. 
This  is  doubtless  a maximum  estimate,  applicable  to  old  vines 
strongly  infested.  The  insect,  arriving  at  the  vine  from  the 
surface  or  through  surface  cracks,  attacks  first  the  roots  located 
near  the  surface : and  may  therefore  be  most  readily  reached 
and  destroyed  in  the  early  stages  of  its  onset.  As  usual  when 
the  application  of  the  remedy  is  too  long  delayed,  the  cure  be- 
comes more  difficult  and  expensive,  and  even  impossible  or  at 
least  unprofitable,  when  the  evil  is  not  taken  in  time.* 


"The  above  data  are  based  on  determinations  made  on  a small  scale.  The  latest  re- 


206 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


15 


The  French  commission  distinctly  aver,  that  the  reported 
cases  of  failure  to  accomplish  the  expected  result  of  the  use  of 
the  sulplio-carbonates,  are  almost  always  directly  traceable  to 
either  a failure  to  conform  to  the  rules  prescribed  as  requisite 
to  success,  or  else  to  the  fact  that  the  vines  were  too  far  gone 
to  be  much  benefited  by  the  destruction  of  the  insect.  The 
antidote,  while  not  materially  detrimental  to  vines  in  moder- 
ately good  condition,  is  not  altogether  innocuous,  so  that  the 
effect  of  its  presence  on  very  weakly  stocks  is  noticeable.  It 
is  therefore  urgently  recommended  that  in  this  as  in  every  other 
case  of  a serious  disease,  timely  measures  be  taken. 

In  view,  however,  of  the  fact  that  the  liberation  of  a small 
quantity  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  in  the  soil  is  unavoidable 
when  the  sulpho-carbonates  are  employed,  another  class  of 
compounds  whose  decomposition  in  the  soil  is  unattended  with 
this  evil,  has  lately  come  into  use.  These  compounds  (called 
Xanthates),  whose  efficacy  depends  equally  upon  the  liberation 
of  carbon  bi-sulphid  in  the  soil,  contain  as  an  essential  ingre- 
dient either  alcohol  or  wood-spirit,  and  on  that  account  would 
be  very  expensive  in  the  United  States;  while  the  manufacture 
of  the  sulpho-carbonates  could  be  cheaply  accomplished  even 
in  California. 

NECESSARY  PRECAUTIONS. 

The  French  commission  emphasizes  the  following  points  to 
be  observed  in  the  application  of  either  sulpho-carbonates  or 
xanthates,  as  necessary  to  success. 

1.  Application  in  spring  or  autumn , at  the  time  when  vegeta- 
tion is  not  very  active;  to  prevent  as  much  as  possible  the  ef- 
fect of  the  antidote  upon  the  delicate  rootlets,  and  its  conse- 
quent absorption  by  the  vine. 

2.  Application  in  sufficient  quantity  at  one  and  the  same  time , 


port  on  the  application  of  the  process  on  a large  scale  was  made  by  M.  Ducloux  to  the 
French  Academy,  on  Novamber  8th.  About  three  and  one-half  acres  were  treated 
with  the  sulpho-carbonate  solution,  allowing  fifteen  Vines  to  each  pound  of  the  com- 
pound, or  double  the  number  estimated  above  for  a depth  of  three  feet.  Six  and  one- 
half  gallons  of  water  were  used  for  each  vine.  The  result  was  not  a single  living  in- 
sect could  afterwards  be  found,  even  on  the  deepest  roots:  but  their  remnats  appear- 
ed in  the  shape  of  thin  pellicles  still  hanging  on  by  their  suckers.  The  vines  had  not 
suffered  in  the  slightest  decree.— On  another  plot,  at  Villie,  previously  treated,  the 
vines  were  in  a flourishing  condition,  but  a few  scattered  individuals  seemed,  from 
some  cause,  to  have  escaped  the  action  of  the  poison.  The  nature  of  this  course  is 
undergoing  investigation. 


207 


16 


BULLETIN  OF  THE 


and  if  possible  before  a rain,  so  as  to  favor  the  absorption  by 
the  soil  as  much  as  possible.  The  decomposition  of  the  com- 
pound in  the  soil  is  accomplished  in  the  space  of  about  three 
to  four  days,  and  the  farther  it  penetrates  during  this  period 
the  better. 

3.  The  use  of  insecticides  must,  in  all  eases,  be  accompanied 
by  that  of  appropriate  manures,  in  order  to  strengthen  the  vi- 
tality of  the  vine  and  thus  increase  its  resistance,  both  to  the 
Phylloxera  and  to  the  influence  of  the  insecticide.  The  nature 
of  the  manures  required  is  indicated  by  the  chemical  analysis 
of  the  juices  of  the  healthy  and  diseased  vines.  It  has  thus 
been  shown  that  the  change  caused  by  the  attack  of  the  Phyl- 
loxera consists  mainly  in  the  diminution  of  the  potash  and  al- 
bumen normally  contained  in  the  juice;  also  in  that,  instead  of 
crystallizable  sugar,  the  abnormal  juice  contains  chiefly  or 
wholly  the  syrupy  variety  called  glucose. 

It  was  thus  indicated  that  manures  rich  in  potash  and  nitro- 
gen should  be  used,  in  order  to  enable  the  plant  to  maintain  as 
nearly  as  possible  the  normal  condition.  Experience  has 
abundantly  justified  this  important  conclusion.  In  numerous 
cases  (probably  in  soils  poor  in  potash  and  nitrogen,  or  from 
their  sandiness  not  very  favorable  to  the  Vine  Louse)  Hie  use  of 
these  manures  alone  has  so  far  improved  the  condition  of  the 
vines,  as  to  neutralize  the  injury  done  by  the  insect,  and  re- 
store them  to  their  usual  productiveness.  In  all  cases,  when 
the  vines  were  not  too  far  gone,  their  condition  has  been  mate- 
rially improved  by  the  application. 

Potassic  manures  appear  to  exert  the  most  decided  effects; 
and  fortunately,  the  material  which  most  cheaply  supplies  this 
important  substance  (££  Kainite”)  can  now  be  readily  obtained 
in  commerce.  Wood  ashes,  wherever  obtainable,  are  of  course 
equally  well  adapted  to  the  purpose. 

Next  in  efficacy  to  potassic  manures  are  those  supplying  ni- 
trogen, especially  in  the  form  of  ammonia.  In  selecting  these 
it  should  be  borne  in  mind,  that  most  of  the  compound  ammo- 
niacal  manures  of  commerce  contain  this  substance  in  connec- 
tion with  phosphates.  These,  however,  in  general  are  of  sub- 
ordinate interest  in  the  case  before  us,  as  proven  by  experi- 
ment as  well  as  analysis.  It  is  obviously  best  to  throw  what- 
ever outlay  can  be  afforded  in  the  direction  where  it  will  do  the 
most  immediate  good,  by  supplying  the  ingredients  chiefly 


208 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


17 


needed.  The  commercial  sulphate  of  ammonia,  now  abundant- 
ly and  cheaply  obtained  from  gas-water,  seems  to  be  the  most 
available  material  for  the  purpose.  All  refuse  animal  matter 
answers  the  same  object;  and  so,  to  a considerable  extent,  does 
Chilian  saltpetre. 

As  a matter  of  course,  stable  manure  answers  this,  as  it  does 
almost  every  other  purpose  for  which  manure  is  wanted.  The 
only  question  is,  how  to  get  enough  of  it — the  problem  which 
agriculturists  have  been  trying  to  solve  from  the  most  ancient 
times  to  the  present. 

Since  everything  that  tends  to  strengthen  the  vitality  and 
development  of  the  vine,  increases  its  power  of  resisting  the 
attacks  of  the  enemy,  and  correspondingly  increases  its  ability 
to  produce  crops  despite  of  the  drain  upon  its  juices,  thorough 
and  careful  culture  is  to  be  considered  as  one  of  the  necessary 
elements  of  success  in  the  struggle.  This  point  is  not  made 
very  prominent  by  the  French  commission,  because  French 
cultivators  are  habitually  diligent  in  this  respect.  But  as  this 
is  far  from  being  the  rule  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic,  an  ex- 
press admonition  can  hardly  be  deemed  superfluous.  Thorough 
tillage  is  cheaper  than  manuring,  when  the  manure  has  to  be 
bought;  and  on  our  unexhausted  soils,  it  will  to  a large  extent 
replace  the  latter.  That  deep  tillage  is  especially  important  in 
California,  on  account  of  the  long  dry  season,  hardly  requires 
discussion. 

It  has  been  very  broadly  and  confidently  asserted,  that  an  in- 
sect enemy  of  the  Phylloxera  has  been  discovered  in  the  West, 
by  Planchon,  who  carried  some  of  the  living  antidote  to  France, 
expecting  thereby  to  exterminate  the  Phylloxera.  These  re- 
ports are  a gross  exaggeration  of  the  facts,  as  well  as  of  Prof. 
Planchon’s  views.  The  insect  in  question  could  hardly  be  ex- 
pected to  accomplish  in  France  what  it  has  signally  failed  to 
do  in  its  native  clime;  and  the  fact  that  after  it  was  turned  out 
on  its  “mission  of  death”  by  Planchon,  the  “destroying  Aca- 
rus”  (or  rather  Tyroglyphus)  was  found  to  have  been  already 
naturalized  (having  probably  been  introduced  at  the  same  time 
with  the  Phylloxera),  shows  conclusively  that  it  cannot  be  relied 
on,  save  as  a useful  ally;  whose  services  we  should  of  course 
secure,  if  it  is  not  already  busy  on  our  infested  vines. 


HH 


209 


18 


BULLETIN  OF  THE 


NECESSITY  FOR  ACTION. 

It  will  be  said,  and  I have  heard  it  said  by  a good  many, 
that  there  is  no  real  cause  for  all  this  alarm  about  the  Phyllox- 
era. That  the  damage  done  so  far  in  California  is  insignifi- 
cant; and  that  from  France,  after  all  the  outcry  raised  about 
the  ruin  of  the  vineyards,  we  have  reports  of  one  of  the  largest 
crops  ever  made.  Finally,  if  we  are  to  go  about  all  this  trouble 
of  poisoning  and  manuring,  vine  culture  will  be  a losing  busi- 
ness, and  had  better  be  let  alone. 

That  the  damage  so  far  done  in  California  is  comparatively 
insignificant,  is  fortunately  true.  That  it  will  remain  so  if  the 
matter  is  let  alone,  is  improbable  to  a degree  which  only  those 
who  have  taken  pains  to  follow  up  the  history  of  the  subject, 
can  fully  appreciate.  Whether  we  look  to  France,  Austria,  or 
to  the  long  defunct  Catawba  and  Isabella  vineyards  of  our 
Western  states,  we  find  the  same  tale  of  rapid  destruction  when- 
ever the  disease  has  gained  any  headway,  though  at  times 
temporarily  checked  by  a season  unfavorable  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  insect.  So  far  as  rapidity  of  progress  and  thorough- 
ness of  work  goes,  the  beginning  made  in  Sonoma  during  the 
last  few  years  compares  favorably  with  any  observed  elsewhere ; 
and  unless  we  are  satisfied,  like  the  ostrich,  to  hide  our  head 
in  the  sand,  in  hopes  of  thus  eluding  the  pursuer,  it  is  high 
time  that  energetic  and  concerted  measures  were  taken  in  the 
premises.  It  is  such  action,  based  upon  intelligent  scientific 
investigation,  that  has  enabled  the  infested  districts  of  France 
to  participate  in  the  abundant  crop  of  the  past  season.  Al- 
though the  use  of  insecticides  has  been  far  from  universal,  the 
more  careful’ treatment  of  the  vineyards  which  followed  the 
general  alarm,  as  well  as  the  intelligent  precautions  taken 
against  the  farther  spread  of  the  pest,  has  been  followed  by  re- 
sults which  cannot  but  be  very  encouraging  to  us — not  as  jus- 
tifying a farther  neglect  of  precautions,  but  as  showing  what 
earnest  and  combined  effort  can  accomplish,  even  against  such 
formidable  odds. 

The  question  as  to  whether  it  will  now  pay  to  manure  and 
cultivate  the  vineyards  thoroughly,  I will  not  discuss  at  length. 
The  present  state  of  our  viniculture  is  in  so  many  respects 
anomalous,  that  it  can  hardly  be  taken  as  a safe  basis  for  esti- 
mates of  what  may  be  even  a few  years  hence.  The  average 
quality  and  market  value  of  Californian  wines  is  now  far  below 

210 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA.  19 


what  it  should  he,  and  can  doubtless  be  made  to  be,  with  a 
more  careful  selection  of  grape  varieties  and  methods  of  treat- 
ment. The  fact  that  they  do  not  conform  to  the  taste  of  wine- 
drinking nations,  limits  our  market.  The  distillation  of  brandy 
from  the  pommace  and  inferior  grapes  and  wines,  from  which 
the  profits  are  often  mainly  derived  in  wine-growiug  countries, 
is  now  so  hampered  by  the  revenue  laws,  that  it  scarcely  counts 
as  a source  of  income  to  the  vine-grower.  All  this  will  soon 
be  changed,  and  in  the  natural  course  of  things  California  can 
hardly  fail  to  become  one  of  the  foremost  wine-producing  coun- 
tries of  the  world,  since  it  possesses  all  the  natural  advantages 
for  this  branch  of  industry  that  can  be  imagined.  The  agricul- 
ture of  all  countries  must,  after  a short  period  of  exhaustive 
culture,  be  carried  on  on  the  basis  of  returns  to  the  soil  in  the 
shape  of  manures.  Even  our  Western  and  Southern  states  are 
fast  coming  to  this,  and  California  will  have  to  do  so  in  her 
turn;  first  commencing  with  such  crops  as  from  their  high  value 
and  sensitiveness  as  to  quality,  will  best  pay  for  high  culture. 
The  wine  crop  is  pre-eminently  one  of  these. 

In  any  case,  the  question  will  soon  arise,  whether  owners  of 
vineyards  can  better  afford  to  manure,  or  to  lose  their  invest- 
ment. Those  who  are  now  suffering  from  the  ravages  of  the 
Phylloxera  in  Sonoma,  will  doubtless  be  able  to  throw  some 
light  on  the  question. 

WHAT  SHOULD  BE  DONE? 

But  as  the  matter  now  stands,  the  formidable  expense  of 
poisoning  and  manuring  need  not  be  incurred  on  any  large 
area,  if  a united  effort,  strengthened,  perhaps,  by  appropriate 
legislation,  is  brought  to  bear  on  the  limited  region  thus  far 
known  to  be  infested.  By  energetic  action  the  pest  could  most 
probably  be  confined  to  its  present  range;  and  attention  and 
early  precautionary  measures  on  the  part  of  all  interested, 
could  prevent  a recurrence  of  any  considerable  development  of 
the  evil.  Eor  the  present  emergency  it  would  perhaps  be  best 
to  import  an  adequate  supply  of  the  antidote  from  France, 
where  it  is  now  manufactured  on  a large  scale;  but  in  the  fu- 
ture, it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  demand  will  be  supplied  by 
home  manufacture,  since  its  chief  material  (sulphur)  is  a cheap 
home  product. 


211 


20 


BULLETIN  OF  THE 


OUR  FUTURE  VINEYARDS. 

However  important  it  may  be  to  save  the  vineyards  now  ex- 
isting, that  of  rendering  those  to  be  planted  hereafter,  proof 
against  the  attacks  of  the  Phylloxera,  deserves  no  less  serious 
consideration.  Fortunately,  the  thorough  studies  made  in  the 
East  and  in  Europe  on  this  subject,  show  us  a plain  and  inex- 
pensive way  to  the  attainment  of  this  great  desideratum. 

The  fact  that  the  Root  Louse  does  not  attack  the  roots  of  cer- 
tain grape  varieties,  while  the  Gall  Louse  is  equally  unable  to 
live  on  the  leaves  of  others,  at  once  suggests  the  grafting  of  the 
latter  varieties  upon  the  former  as  an  effectual  remedy  against 
the  depredations  of  either  form  of  the  Phylloxera. 

The  practical  application  of  this  principle  has  already  been 
widely  tested,  both  in  the  East  and  in  Europe;  and  in  most 
cases  with  the  happiest  results. 

Cases  of  failure  have  also  been  reported,  and  these  appear  to 
be  reducible  to  two  classes.  The  first  and  most  numerous  is 
that  which  is  referable  to  the  inattention  of  observers  to  the  nec- 
essary precaution  of  preventing  the  scion  from  casting  roots  of  its 
own , by  grafting  sufficiently  above  ground  ; instead  of  on  the  root, 
as  is  the  usual  practice  in  grafting  grape  vines. 

A second  but  much  less  numerous  class  of  failures  seems  to 
have  resulted  from  actual  differences  in  the  hind  and  degree  of 
susceptibilities  of  the  varieties  used,  from  that  experienced  in 
other  localities.  At  first  sight  this  appears  an  alarming  result; 
but  it  loses  much  of  its  seriousness  when  we  reflect,  how  strong- 
ly the  nature  of  the  soil,  as  well  as  the  accidental  character  of 
a season,  may  have  influenced  both  the  original  determination 
of  the  character  of  the  vine  in  relation  to  the  Phylloxera,  and 
the  subsequent  contradictory  experiments.  It  is  contrary  to 
all  experience  to  suppose,  that  the  vine  in  its  relations  to  the 
Phylloxera  should  act  differently  from  what  it  (as  well  as  all 
other  grafted  stocks  and  scions)  is  known  to  do  as  regards 
every  other  peculiarity.  The  facts  before  us,  however,  are  suf- 
ficient to  warn  us  that  before  determining  upon  the  proper 
stocks  and  scions  for  our  vineyards,  somewhat  extensive  and 
prolonged  experiments  should  be  made;  and  that  not  only  at 
one  locality  in  the  State  (least  of  all  at  one  where,  as  is  the 
case  at  Berkeley,  the  grape  does  not  succeed  under  any  ordin- 
ary circumstances),  but  in  each  of  the  chief  vine-growing  dis- 


212 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


21 


tricts  of  the  State.  In  the  meantime,  only  such  stocks  as  have 
proved  to  resist  the  Phylloxera  most  completely  under  all  cir- 
cumstances, should  be  chosen  as  the  basis  of  new  vineyards. 

The  following  table,  taken  from  Prof.  Riley’s  reports,  exhib- 
its the  result  of  experience  in  the  Eastern  States  concerning 
the  relative  powers  of  resistence  of  the  most  important  grape 
varieties,  to  the  Phylloxera  Root  Louse.  The  relative  “ impor- 
tance” indicated  in  the  table,  refers,  of  course,  to  the  general 
estimate  of  the  wine-making  qualities  and  hardiness  of  the  va- 
rieties, in  the  climate  and  soils  of  the  Western  states— especial- 
ly Missouri,  Illinois  and  Ohio.  For  California  these  estimates 
may  require  modifications,  which  must  be  determined  by  ex- 
perience. 


TABLE  OF  GRAPE  VARIETIES,. 

EXHIBITING  THEIR  RESISTENCE  TO  THE  PHYLLOXERA. 


A. — RECOMEND  ED  FOR  USE  AS  STOCK  TO  GRAFT  ON,  BECAUSE  not 
LIABLE  TO  THE  ROOT  LOUSE: 


1.  Concord, 

2.  Clinton, 

3.  Herbemont, 

4.  Cunningham, 


5.  Norton’s  Virginia, 

6.  Pentz, 

7.  Cynthiana, 

8.  Taylor. 


B. VARIETIES  TO  GRAFT  ON  THE. ABOVE — VERY  LIABLE  TO  THE  ROOT 

LOUSE. 

Of  First  Importance. 

1.  Catawba,  4.  Wilder, 

2.  Iona,  5.  Goethe, 

3.  Delaware,  6.  All  European  Grapes 

(including  Mission) . 

Of  Secondary  Importance. 

7.  Ives,  9.  Hartford  Prolific. 

8.  Maxatawney, 


Since  the  succession  of  numbers  in  the  above  table  indicates 
the  estimated  comparative  degrees  of  resistence,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  two  varieties  most  highly  esteemed  for  their  wine-mak- 
ing qualities  and  hardiness,  are  also  first  among  those  enjoying 
immunity  from  the  Root  Louse.  It  might  thus  fairly  become 
a question,  whether  some  of  these  American  varieties  should 
not  bodily  be  substituted,  to  a large  extent,  to  the  varieties  of 
the  European  stock,  now  almost  exclusively  cultivated  in  Cali- 

213 


22 


BULLETIN  OF  THE 


fornia.  But  there  can  hardly  be  a question  as  to  the  proprie- 
ty— not  to  say  necessity — of  using  these  hardy  varieties  as 
stocks  whereon  to  graft  the  more  delicate  ones  we  may  wish  to 
retain  on  our  list.  That  the  Cod  cord  and  Clinton,  as  well  as 
the  Catawba,  Isabella,  and  other  American  varieties,  make  a 
vigorous  growth  in  California,  experience  has  already  demon- 
strated, at  the  cost  of  introducing  the  Phylloxera  into  the  vine- 
yards of  this  Coast.  We  may  as  well  now  try  to  profit  by  the 
experience  so  dearly  bought ; the  more  as  the  Mission  grape  is 
not,  assuredly,  in  itself  a desirable  wine-grape. 

Should  the  Eastern  grapes  now  considered  as  proof  against 
the  Phylloxera  turn  out  to  be  less  hardy,  or  otherwise  unsuita- 
ble to  this  climate,  the  native  wild  grape  of  California  may, 
perhaps,  be  made  to  answer  as  a stock;  and  experiments . in 
that  direction  cannot  be  too  soon  begun. 

The  expense  of  using  grafts  in  planting  out  vineyards  is,  of 
course,  somewdiat  greater  than  when  simply  rooted  cuttings 
are  set  out.  But  this  is  a trifling  consideration  when  an  in- 
vestment which  is  to  last  for  thirty  or  forty  years,  is  at  stake. 
Grafting  the  vine  above  ground  is  not  by  any  means  so  preca- 
rious an  operation  as  is  supposed  by  many,  and  may  be  accom- 
plished successfully  in  a variety  of  ways,  the  most  important  of 
which  are:  1.  Grafting  the  rooted  cuttings;  when  carefully 
done,  especially  using  canes  of  the  same  diameter,  in  good  sea- 
sons but  a small  percentage  fails.  2.  Grafting  by  inarching; 
this  is  applicable  to  older  vines,  and  is  done  by  inserting  both 
ends  of  the  scion,  sharpened,  into  cuts  made  in  the  stock  so  as 
to  cause  the  former  to  be  elastically  retained.  The  scion  so 
placed  rarely  fails  to  “take,”  and  the  stock  and  scion  can  be 
severed  at  leisure  between  the  joints.  3.  Another  mode,  strong- 
ly recommended  in  the  West,  is  to  plant  two  cuttings  (stock 
and  scion)  about  a foot  apart,  and  as  soon  as  the  canes  of  the 
first  years  growth  have  sufficiently  ripened,  join  together  firmly 
by  smooth-cut  surfaces,  and  after  they  have  united,  cut  the 
connection  between  the  scion  and  its  root.  This  mode  is  of 
course  infallible,  as  it  can  be  repeated  should  the  first  joint 
fail  to  “ take.” 

Either  mode  of  proceeding,  of  course,  to  be  successful 
requires  precautions  which  I cannot  here  consider  at  length. 
One  essential  point,  however,  is  that  cleft  grafting  is  ill  adapted 
to  American  canes  at  least,  and  probably  to  all . 


214 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


23 


FACILITY  OF  PROPAGATION. 

An  important  point  to  be  considered  in  this  connection  is  the 
facility  with  which  the  several  stocks  and  scions  recommended 
may  be  propagated  in  the  cheapest  manner,  i.  e.  by  rooting 
cuttings;  it  being  obvious  that  propagation  by  layering,  if 
necessary,  would  materially  increase  the  first  cost  of  a vineyard. 
On  this  subject  the  subjoined  table  (furnished  by  Mr.  George 
H usman  „ the  veteran  Missouri  viniculturist,  to  Prof.  Riley) 
will  convey  important  information. 

TABLE  OE  GRAPE  VARIETIES, 

EXHIBITING  FACILITY  OF  PROPAGATION  BY  CUTTINGS. 


A.  Practically  not  propag able  hy  Cuttings ; must  be  Layered . 

1.  Herman,  3.  Cynthiana. 

2.  Norton’s  Virginia, 


B.  Quite  difficult  to  propagate  from  Cuttings. 


Herbemont, 

7. 

Rulander, 

Cunningham, 

8. 

Louisiana, 

Devereux, 

9. 

Delaware. 

C.  Cuttings  root  with  tolerable  ease . 

10.  Enmelan,  12.  Maxatawney. 

11.  Creveling, 


JD.  Cuttings  root  easily. 


13.  Hartford  Prolific, 

14.  Telegraph, 

15.  Ives, 

16.  Concord, 

17.  Catawba, 

18.  Iona, 


19.  Diana, 

20.  Rogers’  Hybrids  (Goe- 
the, Massasoit,  Wilder,  Lindley,  Ag- 
awam, Merrimac,  Salem,  etc), 

21.  Arnold’s  Hybrids  (be- 
tween Foreign  and  Clinton) . 


E.  “ Boot  like  Willoivs.” 


22.  Clinton, 


23.  Taylor. 


It  will  be  observed  that  here,  again,  the  Clinton , and  Concord , 
stand  among  those  offering  the  greatest  advantages;  the  form- 
er, with  the  Taylor , pre-eminently  so.  It  would  thus  seem 
that,  so  far  as  experience  goes,  these  two  varieties  offer  the  best 
prospects  for  the  solution  of  the  important  problem  before  us — 

215 


24 


Ms.- 


3 0112  105871377 


BULLETIN  OF  THE 


a problem  which,  I fear,  is  more  pressing  than  any  now  engag- 
ing the  attention  of  our  viniculturists. 

OBSERVATIONS  REQUIRED. 

It  is  much  to  .be  desired  that  as  many  observers  as  possible 
should,  during  the  coming  season,  pay  close  attention  to  the 
habits  of  the  Phylloxera  in  this  climate.  The  much-to-be-dread- 
ed winged  form  of  the  insect  has  not  thus  far,  it  seems,  been 
observed  in  Sonoma.  The  fact  that,  although  making  fearful 
work  where  it  exists,  the  pest  has  not  spread  quite  as  rapidly 
as  the  favorable  circumstances  would  lead  one  to  expect,  leaves 
room  for  the  question,  whether  the  winged  form  is  as  abund- 
antly produced  in  California  as  it  is  elsewhere.  It  would  be 
exceedingly  important  to  have  so  essential  a point  settled  as 
quickly  as  possible,  since  on  it  depends  largely  both  the  nature 
and  extent  of  the  means  that  may  successfully  keep  the  Phyl- 
loxera in  check. 


